String literals are being parsed, compiled and printed, read more

Strings, due to their potentially large size, are stored outside of a routine's code section, in the data section. To access the correct string, you must read the jump index, then the real address from the jump table - and extra layer of indirection will result in more flexible data down the road, I hope. Other changes include: * Added string concat operator .. * Added TOY_STRING_MAX_LENGTH * Strings can't be created or concatenated longer than the max length * The parser will display a warning if the bucket is too small for a string at max length, but it will continue * Added TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL to correspend with max string length * The bucket now allocates an address that is 4-byte aligned * Fixed missing entries in the parser rule table * Corrected some failing TOY_BITNESS tests
2026-04-15 23:04:08 +10:00 · 2024-10-07 23:05:36 +11:00
parent 14653a303f
commit 4bcf8e84a9
23 changed files with 572 additions and 195 deletions
--- a/.github/workflows/continuous-integration-v2.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/continuous-integration-v2.yml
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ jobs:
        if: matrix.commands.gdb == false || matrix.platforms.gdb_skip == false
        run: ${{ matrix.commands.exec }}

-  #TODO: hook this up to real script files
+  #TODO: hook this up to real script files, preferably in the test section
  run-test-repl-scripts:
    continue-on-error: true
    needs: run-test-cases
@@ -49,6 +49,7 @@ jobs:
          - { os: macos-latest }
        commands:
          - { build: make repl, run: out/repl.exe -f '../scripts/example.toy' }
+          - { build: make repl, run: out/repl.exe -f '../scripts/example-print.toy' }
    
    runs-on: ${{ matrix.platforms.os }}
    steps:
--- a/repl/main.c
+++ b/repl/main.c
@@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ static void errorAndExitCallback(const char* msg) {
 }

 //main file
-int main(int argc, const char* argv[]) {
+int main(int argc, const char* argv[]) { //TODO: this needs an interactive terminal mode
 	Toy_setPrintCallback(printCallback);
 	Toy_setErrorCallback(errorAndExitCallback);
 	Toy_setAssertFailureCallback(errorAndExitCallback);
@@ -218,7 +218,7 @@ int main(int argc, const char* argv[]) {
 		Toy_Parser parser;
 		Toy_bindParser(&parser, &lexer);

-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		Toy_Ast* ast = Toy_scanParser(&bucket, &parser);

 		Toy_Bytecode bc = Toy_compileBytecode(ast);
--- a/scripts/example-print.toy
+++ b/scripts/example-print.toy
@@ -3,3 +3,9 @@ print 42;

 //it can handle complex expressions
 print 3 * 5;
+
+//strings should work
+print "Hello world!";
+
+//so should concat
+print "Hello" .. "world!";
--- a/source/toy_ast.h
+++ b/source/toy_ast.h
@@ -45,6 +45,7 @@ typedef enum Toy_AstFlag {
 	TOY_AST_FLAG_COMPARE_GREATER_EQUAL,
 	TOY_AST_FLAG_AND,
 	TOY_AST_FLAG_OR,
+	TOY_AST_FLAG_CONCAT,

 	//unary flags
 	TOY_AST_FLAG_NEGATE,
@@ -108,7 +109,7 @@ typedef struct Toy_AstEnd {
 union Toy_Ast {             //32 | 64 BITNESS
 	Toy_AstType type;       //4  | 4
 	Toy_AstBlock block;     //16 | 32
-	Toy_AstValue value;     //12 | 12
+	Toy_AstValue value;     //12 | 24
 	Toy_AstUnary unary;     //12 | 16
 	Toy_AstBinary binary;   //16 | 24
 	Toy_AstGroup group;     //8  | 16
--- a/source/toy_bucket.c
+++ b/source/toy_bucket.c
@@ -32,6 +32,11 @@ void* Toy_partitionBucket(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, unsigned int amount) {
 		exit(1);
 	}

+	//BUGFIX: the endpoint must be aligned to the word size, otherwise you'll get a bus error from moving pointers
+	if (amount % 4 != 0) {
+		amount += 4 - (amount % 4); //ceil
+	}
+
 	//if you try to allocate too much space
 	if ((*bucketHandle)->capacity < amount) {
 		fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: Failed to partition a 'Toy_Bucket': requested %d from a bucket of %d capacity\n" TOY_CC_RESET, (int)amount, (int)((*bucketHandle)->capacity));
--- a/source/toy_bucket.h
+++ b/source/toy_bucket.h
@@ -20,3 +20,9 @@ TOY_API Toy_Bucket* Toy_allocateBucket(unsigned int capacity);
 TOY_API void* Toy_partitionBucket(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, unsigned int amount);
 TOY_API void Toy_freeBucket(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle);

+//some useful bucket sizes
+#define TOY_BUCKET_SMALL 256
+#define TOY_BUCKET_MEDIUM 512
+#define TOY_BUCKET_LARGE 1024
+
+#define TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL 1024
--- a/source/toy_opcodes.h
+++ b/source/toy_opcodes.h
@@ -35,6 +35,7 @@ typedef enum Toy_OpcodeType {

 	//various action instructions
 	TOY_OPCODE_PRINT,
+	TOY_OPCODE_CONCAT,
 	//TODO: clear the program stack

 	//meta instructions
--- a/source/toy_parser.c
+++ b/source/toy_parser.c
@@ -1,6 +1,9 @@
 #include "toy_parser.h"
 #include "toy_console_colors.h"

+#include "toy_value.h"
+#include "toy_string.h"
+
 #include <stdio.h>

 //utilities
@@ -107,14 +110,14 @@ typedef struct ParsingTuple {

 static void parsePrecedence(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Parser* parser, Toy_Ast** rootHandle, ParsingPrecedence precRule);

-static Toy_AstFlag atomic(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Parser* parser, Toy_Ast** rootHandle);
+static Toy_AstFlag literal(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Parser* parser, Toy_Ast** rootHandle);
 static Toy_AstFlag unary(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Parser* parser, Toy_Ast** rootHandle);
 static Toy_AstFlag binary(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Parser* parser, Toy_Ast** rootHandle);
 static Toy_AstFlag group(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Parser* parser, Toy_Ast** rootHandle);

 //precedence definitions
 static ParsingTuple parsingRulesetTable[] = {
-	{PREC_PRIMARY,atomic,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_NULL,
+	{PREC_PRIMARY,literal,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_NULL,

 	//variable names
 	{PREC_NONE,NULL,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_IDENTIFIER,
@@ -157,11 +160,11 @@ static ParsingTuple parsingRulesetTable[] = {
 	{PREC_NONE,NULL,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_KEYWORD_YIELD,

 	//literal values
-	{PREC_PRIMARY,atomic,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_LITERAL_TRUE,
-	{PREC_PRIMARY,atomic,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_LITERAL_FALSE,
-	{PREC_PRIMARY,atomic,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_LITERAL_INTEGER,
-	{PREC_PRIMARY,atomic,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_LITERAL_FLOAT,
-	{PREC_NONE,NULL,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_LITERAL_STRING,
+	{PREC_PRIMARY,literal,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_LITERAL_TRUE,
+	{PREC_PRIMARY,literal,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_LITERAL_FALSE,
+	{PREC_PRIMARY,literal,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_LITERAL_INTEGER,
+	{PREC_PRIMARY,literal,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_LITERAL_FLOAT,
+	{PREC_PRIMARY,literal,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_LITERAL_STRING,

 	//math operators
 	{PREC_TERM,NULL,binary},// TOY_TOKEN_OPERATOR_ADD,
@@ -201,7 +204,11 @@ static ParsingTuple parsingRulesetTable[] = {
 	{PREC_NONE,NULL,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_OPERATOR_QUESTION,
 	{PREC_NONE,NULL,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_OPERATOR_COLON,

-	{PREC_NONE,NULL,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_OPERATOR_CONCAT, // ..
+	{PREC_NONE,NULL,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_OPERATOR_SEMICOLON, // ;
+	{PREC_NONE,NULL,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_OPERATOR_COMMA, // ,
+
+	{PREC_NONE,NULL,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_OPERATOR_DOT, // .
+	{PREC_CALL,NULL,binary},// TOY_TOKEN_OPERATOR_CONCAT, // ..
 	{PREC_NONE,NULL,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_OPERATOR_REST, // ...

 	//unused operators
@@ -214,7 +221,7 @@ static ParsingTuple parsingRulesetTable[] = {
 	{PREC_NONE,NULL,NULL},// TOY_TOKEN_EOF,
 };

-static Toy_AstFlag atomic(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Parser* parser, Toy_Ast** rootHandle) {
+static Toy_AstFlag literal(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Parser* parser, Toy_Ast** rootHandle) {
 	switch(parser->previous.type) {
 		case TOY_TOKEN_NULL:
 			Toy_private_emitAstValue(bucketHandle, rootHandle, TOY_VALUE_FROM_NULL());
@@ -262,8 +269,40 @@ static Toy_AstFlag atomic(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Parser* parser, Toy_Ast
 			return TOY_AST_FLAG_NONE;
 		}

+		case TOY_TOKEN_LITERAL_STRING: {
+			char buffer[parser->previous.length + 1];
+
+			unsigned int i = 0, o = 0;
+			do {
+				buffer[i] = parser->previous.lexeme[o];
+				if (buffer[i] == '\\' && parser->previous.lexeme[++o]) {
+					//also handle escape characters
+					switch(parser->previous.lexeme[o]) {
+						case 'n':
+							buffer[i] = '\n';
+							break;
+						case 't':
+							buffer[i] = '\t';
+							break;
+						case '\\':
+							buffer[i] = '\\';
+							break;
+						case '"':
+							buffer[i] = '"';
+							break;
+					}
+				}
+				i++;
+			} while (parser->previous.lexeme[o++] && i < parser->previous.length);
+
+			buffer[i] = '\0';
+			Toy_private_emitAstValue(bucketHandle, rootHandle, TOY_VALUE_FROM_STRING(Toy_createStringLength(bucketHandle, buffer, i)));
+
+			return TOY_AST_FLAG_NONE;
+		}
+
 		default:
-			printError(parser, parser->previous, "Unexpected token passed to atomic precedence rule");
+			printError(parser, parser->previous, "Unexpected token passed to literal precedence rule");
 			Toy_private_emitAstError(bucketHandle, rootHandle);
 			return TOY_AST_FLAG_NONE;
 	}
@@ -405,6 +444,11 @@ static Toy_AstFlag binary(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Parser* parser, Toy_Ast
 			return TOY_AST_FLAG_COMPARE_GREATER_EQUAL;
 		}

+		case TOY_TOKEN_OPERATOR_CONCAT: {
+			parsePrecedence(bucketHandle, parser, rootHandle, PREC_CALL + 1);
+			return TOY_AST_FLAG_CONCAT;
+		}
+
 		default:
 			printError(parser, parser->previous, "Unexpected token passed to binary precedence rule");
 			Toy_private_emitAstError(bucketHandle, rootHandle);
@@ -574,6 +618,11 @@ void Toy_bindParser(Toy_Parser* parser, Toy_Lexer* lexer) {
 Toy_Ast* Toy_scanParser(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Parser* parser) {
 	Toy_Ast* rootHandle = NULL;

+	//double check bucket capacity for strings
+	if ((*bucketHandle)->capacity < TOY_STRING_MAX_LENGTH) {
+		fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_WARN "WARNING: Bucket capacity in Toy_scanParser() is smaller than TOY_STRING_MAX_LENGTH" TOY_CC_RESET);
+	}
+
 	//check for EOF
 	if (match(parser, TOY_TOKEN_EOF)) {
 		Toy_private_emitAstEnd(bucketHandle, &rootHandle);
--- a/source/toy_routine.c
+++ b/source/toy_routine.c
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@

 #include "toy_opcodes.h"
 #include "toy_value.h"
+#include "toy_string.h"

 #include <stdio.h>
 #include <stdlib.h>
@@ -17,7 +18,7 @@ static void expand(void** handle, unsigned int* capacity, unsigned int* count, u
 		(*handle) = realloc((*handle), (*capacity));

 		if ((*handle) == NULL) {
-			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: Failed to allocate a 'Toy_Routine' of %d capacity\n" TOY_CC_RESET, (int)(*capacity));
+			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: Failed to allocate %d space for a part of 'Toy_Routine'\n" TOY_CC_RESET, (int)(*capacity));
 			exit(1);
 		}
 	}
@@ -45,48 +46,91 @@ static void emitFloat(void** handle, unsigned int* capacity, unsigned int* count
 }

 //write instructions based on the AST types
-#define EMIT_BYTE(rt, byte) \
-	emitByte((void**)(&((*rt)->code)), &((*rt)->codeCapacity), &((*rt)->codeCount), byte);
-#define EMIT_INT(rt, code, byte) \
-	emitInt((void**)(&((*rt)->code)), &((*rt)->codeCapacity), &((*rt)->codeCount), byte);
-#define EMIT_FLOAT(rt, code, byte) \
-	emitFloat((void**)(&((*rt)->code)), &((*rt)->codeCapacity), &((*rt)->codeCount), byte);
+#define EMIT_BYTE(rt, part, byte) \
+	emitByte((void**)(&((*rt)->part)), &((*rt)->part##Capacity), &((*rt)->part##Count), byte);
+#define EMIT_INT(rt, part, bytes) \
+	emitInt((void**)(&((*rt)->part)), &((*rt)->part##Capacity), &((*rt)->part##Count), bytes);
+#define EMIT_FLOAT(rt, part, bytes) \
+	emitFloat((void**)(&((*rt)->part)), &((*rt)->part##Capacity), &((*rt)->part##Count), bytes);
+
+static void emitToJumpTable(Toy_Routine** rt, unsigned int startAddr) {
+	EMIT_INT(rt, code, (*rt)->jumpsCount); //mark the jump index in the code
+	EMIT_INT(rt, jumps, startAddr); //save address at the jump index
+}
+
+static void emitString(Toy_Routine** rt, Toy_String* str) {
+	//4-byte alignment
+	unsigned int length = str->length + 1;
+	if (length % 4 != 0) {
+		length += 4 - (length % 4); //ceil
+	}
+
+	//grab the current start address
+	unsigned int startAddr = (*rt)->dataCount;
+
+	//move the string into the data section
+	expand((void**)(&((*rt)->data)), &((*rt)->dataCapacity), &((*rt)->dataCount), (*rt)->dataCount + length);
+
+	if (str->type == TOY_STRING_NODE) {
+		char* buffer = Toy_getStringRawBuffer(str);
+		memcpy((*rt)->data + (*rt)->dataCount, buffer, str->length + 1);
+		free(buffer);
+	}
+	else if (str->type == TOY_STRING_LEAF) {
+		memcpy((*rt)->data + (*rt)->dataCount, str->as.leaf.data, str->length + 1);
+	}
+	else if (str->type == TOY_STRING_NAME) {
+		memcpy((*rt)->data + (*rt)->dataCount, str->as.name.data, str->length + 1);
+	}
+
+	(*rt)->dataCount += length;
+
+	//mark the jump position
+	emitToJumpTable(rt, startAddr);
+}

 static void writeRoutineCode(Toy_Routine** rt, Toy_Ast* ast); //forward declare for recursion

 static void writeInstructionValue(Toy_Routine** rt, Toy_AstValue ast) {
 	//TODO: store more complex values in the data code
-	EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_READ);
-	EMIT_BYTE(rt, ast.value.type);
+	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, TOY_OPCODE_READ);
+	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, ast.value.type);

 	//emit the raw value based on the type
 	if (TOY_VALUE_IS_NULL(ast.value)) {
 		//NOTHING - null's type data is enough

 		//4-byte alignment
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, 0);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, 0);
 	}
 	else if (TOY_VALUE_IS_BOOLEAN(ast.value)) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_VALUE_AS_BOOLEAN(ast.value));
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, TOY_VALUE_AS_BOOLEAN(ast.value));

 		//4-byte alignment
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, 0);
 	}
 	else if (TOY_VALUE_IS_INTEGER(ast.value)) {
 		//4-byte alignment
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, 0);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, 0);

 		EMIT_INT(rt, code, TOY_VALUE_AS_INTEGER(ast.value));
 	}
 	else if (TOY_VALUE_IS_FLOAT(ast.value)) {
 		//4-byte alignment
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, 0);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, 0);

 		EMIT_FLOAT(rt, code, TOY_VALUE_AS_FLOAT(ast.value));
 	}
+	else if (TOY_VALUE_IS_STRING(ast.value)) {
+		//4-byte alignment
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, 0);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, 0);
+
+		emitString(rt, TOY_VALUE_AS_STRING(ast.value));
+	}
 	else {
 		fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: Invalid AST type found: Unknown value type\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
 		exit(-1);
@@ -98,12 +142,12 @@ static void writeInstructionUnary(Toy_Routine** rt, Toy_AstUnary ast) {
 	writeRoutineCode(rt, ast.child);

 	if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_NEGATE) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_NEGATE);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, TOY_OPCODE_NEGATE);

 		//4-byte alignment
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, 0);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, 0);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, 0);
 	}
 	else {
 		fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: Invalid AST unary flag found\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
@@ -117,80 +161,83 @@ static void writeInstructionBinary(Toy_Routine** rt, Toy_AstBinary ast) {
 	writeRoutineCode(rt, ast.right);

 	if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_ADD) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_ADD);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_ADD);
 	}
 	else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_SUBTRACT) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_SUBTRACT);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_SUBTRACT);
 	}
 	else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_MULTIPLY) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_MULTIPLY);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_MULTIPLY);
 	}
 	else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_DIVIDE) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_DIVIDE);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_DIVIDE);
 	}
 	else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_MODULO) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_MODULO);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_MODULO);
 	}

 	// else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_ASSIGN) {
-	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN);
+	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN);
 	// 	//TODO: emit the env symbol to store TOP(S) within
 	// }
 	// else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_ADD_ASSIGN) {
-	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_ADD);
-	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN);
+	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_ADD);
+	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN);
 	// 	//TODO: emit the env symbol to store TOP(S) within
 	// }
 	// else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_SUBTRACT_ASSIGN) {
-	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_SUBTRACT);
-	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN);
+	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_SUBTRACT);
+	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN);
 	// 	//TODO: emit the env symbol to store TOP(S) within
 	// }
 	// else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_MULTIPLY_ASSIGN) {
-	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_MULTIPLY);
-	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN);
+	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_MULTIPLY);
+	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN);
 	// 	//TODO: emit the env symbol to store TOP(S) within
 	// }
 	// else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_DIVIDE_ASSIGN) {
-	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_DIVIDE);
-	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN);
+	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_DIVIDE);
+	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN);
 	// 	//TODO: emit the env symbol to store TOP(S) within
 	// }
 	// else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_MODULO_ASSIGN) {
-	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_MODULO);
-	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN);
+	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_MODULO);
+	// 	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN);
 	// 	//TODO: emit the env symbol to store TOP(S) within
 	// }

 	else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_COMPARE_EQUAL) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_COMPARE_EQUAL);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_COMPARE_EQUAL);
 	}
 	else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_COMPARE_NOT) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_COMPARE_EQUAL);
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_NEGATE); //squeezed into one word
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_COMPARE_EQUAL);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_NEGATE); //squeezed into one word
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,0);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,0);

 		return;
 	}
 	else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_COMPARE_LESS) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_COMPARE_LESS);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_COMPARE_LESS);
 	}
 	else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_COMPARE_LESS_EQUAL) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_COMPARE_LESS_EQUAL);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_COMPARE_LESS_EQUAL);
 	}
 	else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_COMPARE_GREATER) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_COMPARE_GREATER);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_COMPARE_GREATER);
 	}
 	else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_COMPARE_GREATER_EQUAL) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_COMPARE_GREATER_EQUAL);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_COMPARE_GREATER_EQUAL);
 	}

 	else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_AND) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_AND);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_AND);
 	}
 	else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_OR) {
-		EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_OR);
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_OR);
+	}
+	else if (ast.flag == TOY_AST_FLAG_CONCAT) {
+		EMIT_BYTE(rt, code, TOY_OPCODE_CONCAT);
 	}
 	else {
 		fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: Invalid AST binary flag found\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
@@ -198,9 +245,9 @@ static void writeInstructionBinary(Toy_Routine** rt, Toy_AstBinary ast) {
 	}

 	//4-byte alignment (covers most cases)
-	EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
-	EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
-	EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
+	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,0);
+	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,0);
+	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,0);
 }

 static void writeInstructionPrint(Toy_Routine** rt, Toy_AstPrint ast) {
@@ -208,12 +255,12 @@ static void writeInstructionPrint(Toy_Routine** rt, Toy_AstPrint ast) {
 	writeRoutineCode(rt, ast.child);

 	//output the print opcode
-	EMIT_BYTE(rt, TOY_OPCODE_PRINT);
+	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,TOY_OPCODE_PRINT);

 	//4-byte alignment
-	EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
-	EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
-	EMIT_BYTE(rt, 0);
+	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,0);
+	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,0);
+	EMIT_BYTE(rt, code,0);
 }

 //routine structure
@@ -274,39 +321,31 @@ static void writeRoutineCode(Toy_Routine** rt, Toy_Ast* ast) {
 	}
 }

-// static void writeRoutineJumps(Toy_Routine* rt) {
-// 	//
-// }
-
-// static void writeRoutineData(Toy_Routine* rt) {
-// 	//
-// }
-
 static void* writeRoutine(Toy_Routine* rt, Toy_Ast* ast) {
 	//build the routine's parts
 	//TODO: param
 	//code
 	writeRoutineCode(&rt, ast);
-	EMIT_BYTE(&rt, TOY_OPCODE_RETURN); //temp terminator
-	EMIT_BYTE(&rt, 0); //4-byte alignment
-	EMIT_BYTE(&rt, 0);
-	EMIT_BYTE(&rt, 0);
-	//TODO: jumps
-	//TODO: data
+	EMIT_BYTE(&rt, code, TOY_OPCODE_RETURN); //temp terminator
+	EMIT_BYTE(&rt, code, 0); //4-byte alignment
+	EMIT_BYTE(&rt, code, 0);
+	EMIT_BYTE(&rt, code, 0);

 	//write the header and combine the parts
 	void* buffer = NULL;
 	unsigned int capacity = 0, count = 0;
-	// int paramAddr = 0, codeAddr = 0, jumpsAddr = 0, dataAddr = 0, subsAddr = 0;
+	// int paramAddr = 0, codeAddr = 0, subsAddr = 0;
 	int codeAddr = 0;
+	int jumpsAddr = 0;
+	int dataAddr = 0;

 	emitInt(&buffer, &capacity, &count, 0); //total size (overwritten later)
-	emitInt(&buffer, &capacity, &count, rt->paramCount); //param count
-	emitInt(&buffer, &capacity, &count, rt->jumpsCount); //jumps count
-	emitInt(&buffer, &capacity, &count, rt->dataCount); //data count
-	emitInt(&buffer, &capacity, &count, rt->subsCount); //routine count
+	emitInt(&buffer, &capacity, &count, rt->paramCount); //param size
+	emitInt(&buffer, &capacity, &count, rt->jumpsCount); //jumps size
+	emitInt(&buffer, &capacity, &count, rt->dataCount); //data size
+	emitInt(&buffer, &capacity, &count, rt->subsCount); //routine size

-	//generate blank spaces, cache their positions in the []Addr variables
+	//generate blank spaces, cache their positions in the *Addr variables (for storing the start positions)
 	if (rt->paramCount > 0) {
 		// paramAddr = count;
 		emitInt((void**)&buffer, &capacity, &count, 0); //params
@@ -316,11 +355,11 @@ static void* writeRoutine(Toy_Routine* rt, Toy_Ast* ast) {
 		emitInt((void**)&buffer, &capacity, &count, 0); //code
 	}
 	if (rt->jumpsCount > 0) {
-		// jumpsAddr = count;
+		jumpsAddr = count;
 		emitInt((void**)&buffer, &capacity, &count, 0); //jumps
 	}
 	if (rt->dataCount > 0) {
-		// dataAddr = count;
+		dataAddr = count;
 		emitInt((void**)&buffer, &capacity, &count, 0); //data
 	}
 	if (rt->subsCount > 0) {
@@ -337,6 +376,22 @@ static void* writeRoutine(Toy_Routine* rt, Toy_Ast* ast) {
 		count += rt->codeCount;
 	}

+	if (rt->jumpsCount > 0) {
+		expand(&buffer, &capacity, &count, rt->jumpsCount);
+		memcpy((buffer + count), rt->jumps, rt->jumpsCount);
+
+		*((int*)(buffer + jumpsAddr)) = count;
+		count += rt->jumpsCount;
+	}
+
+	if (rt->dataCount > 0) {
+		expand(&buffer, &capacity, &count, rt->dataCount);
+		memcpy((buffer + count), rt->data, rt->dataCount);
+
+		*((int*)(buffer + dataAddr)) = count;
+		count += rt->dataCount;
+	}
+
 	//finally, record the total size within the header, and return the result
 	*((int*)buffer) = count;

--- a/source/toy_routine.h
+++ b/source/toy_routine.h
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ typedef struct Toy_Routine {
 	unsigned int jumpsCapacity;
 	unsigned int jumpsCount;

-	unsigned char* data; //{type,val} tuples of data
+	unsigned char* data; //data for longer stuff
 	unsigned int dataCapacity;
 	unsigned int dataCount;

--- a/source/toy_string.c
+++ b/source/toy_string.c
@@ -42,13 +42,18 @@ Toy_String* Toy_createString(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, const char* cstring) {
 }

 Toy_String* Toy_createStringLength(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, const char* cstring, int length) {
+	if (length > TOY_STRING_MAX_LENGTH) {
+		fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: Can't create a string longer than %d\n" TOY_CC_RESET, TOY_STRING_MAX_LENGTH);
+		exit(-1);
+	}
+
 	Toy_String* ret = (Toy_String*)Toy_partitionBucket(bucketHandle, sizeof(Toy_String) + length + 1); //TODO: compensate for partitioning more space than bucket capacity

 	ret->type = TOY_STRING_LEAF;
 	ret->length = length;
 	ret->refCount = 1;
 	ret->cachedHash = 0; //don't calc until needed
-	memcpy(ret->as.leaf.data, cstring, length);
+	memcpy(ret->as.leaf.data, cstring, length + 1);
 	ret->as.leaf.data[length] = '\0';

 	return ret;
@@ -57,13 +62,18 @@ Toy_String* Toy_createStringLength(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, const char* cstrin
 TOY_API Toy_String* Toy_createNameString(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, const char* cname) {
 	int length = strlen(cname);

+	if (length > TOY_STRING_MAX_LENGTH) {
+		fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: Can't create a name string longer than %d\n" TOY_CC_RESET, TOY_STRING_MAX_LENGTH);
+		exit(-1);
+	}
+
 	Toy_String* ret = (Toy_String*)Toy_partitionBucket(bucketHandle, sizeof(Toy_String) + length + 1); //TODO: compensate for partitioning more space than bucket capacity

 	ret->type = TOY_STRING_NAME;
 	ret->length = length;
 	ret->refCount = 1;
 	ret->cachedHash = 0; //don't calc until needed
-	memcpy(ret->as.name.data, cname, length);
+	memcpy(ret->as.name.data, cname, length + 1);
 	ret->as.name.data[length] = '\0';

 	return ret;
@@ -98,7 +108,7 @@ Toy_String* Toy_deepCopyString(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_String* str) {
 		ret->length = str->length;
 		ret->refCount = 1;
 		ret->cachedHash = str->cachedHash;
-		memcpy(ret->as.name.data, str->as.name.data, str->length);
+		memcpy(ret->as.name.data, str->as.name.data, str->length + 1);
 		ret->as.name.data[ret->length] = '\0';
 	}

@@ -116,6 +126,11 @@ Toy_String* Toy_concatStrings(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_String* left, Toy_S
 		exit(-1);
 	}

+	if (left->length + right->length > TOY_STRING_MAX_LENGTH) {
+		fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: Can't concat a string longer than %d\n" TOY_CC_RESET, TOY_STRING_MAX_LENGTH);
+		exit(-1);
+	}
+
 	Toy_String* ret = (Toy_String*)Toy_partitionBucket(bucketHandle, sizeof(Toy_String));

 	ret->type = TOY_STRING_NODE;
--- a/source/toy_string.h
+++ b/source/toy_string.h
@@ -5,6 +5,8 @@
 #include "toy_bucket.h"
 #include "toy_value.h"

+#define TOY_STRING_MAX_LENGTH 1000
+
 //rope pattern
 typedef struct Toy_String {             //32 | 64 BITNESS
 	enum Toy_StringType {
--- a/source/toy_value.h
+++ b/source/toy_value.h
@@ -15,6 +15,8 @@ typedef enum Toy_ValueType {
 	TOY_VALUE_DICTIONARY,
 	TOY_VALUE_FUNCTION,
 	TOY_VALUE_OPAQUE,
+
+	//TODO: type, any
 } Toy_ValueType;

 //8 bytes in size
@@ -31,7 +33,7 @@ typedef struct Toy_Value {      //32 | 64 BITNESS
 	} as;                           //4  | 8

 	Toy_ValueType type;             //4  | 4
-} Toy_Value;                    //8  | 12
+} Toy_Value;                        //8  | 16

 #define TOY_VALUE_IS_NULL(value)				((value).type == TOY_VALUE_NULL)
 #define TOY_VALUE_IS_BOOLEAN(value)				((value).type == TOY_VALUE_BOOLEAN)
--- a/source/toy_vm.c
+++ b/source/toy_vm.c
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@
 #include "toy_print.h"
 #include "toy_opcodes.h"
 #include "toy_value.h"
+#include "toy_string.h"

 #include <stdio.h>
 #include <stdlib.h>
@@ -64,8 +65,17 @@ static void processRead(Toy_VM* vm) {
 		}

 		case TOY_VALUE_STRING: {
-			//
-			// break;
+			fix_alignment(vm);
+			//grab the jump as an integer
+			unsigned int jump = *(unsigned int*)(vm->routine + vm->jumpsAddr + READ_INT(vm));
+
+			//jumps are relative to the data address
+			char* cstring = (char*)(vm->routine + vm->dataAddr + jump);
+
+			//build a string from the data section
+			value = TOY_VALUE_FROM_STRING(Toy_createString(&vm->stringBucket, cstring));
+
+			break;
 		}

 		case TOY_VALUE_ARRAY: {
@@ -264,7 +274,24 @@ static void processPrint(Toy_VM* vm) {
 			break;
 		}

-		case TOY_VALUE_STRING: //TODO: decide on how long strings, etc. live for in memory
+		case TOY_VALUE_STRING: {
+			Toy_String* str = TOY_VALUE_AS_STRING(value);
+
+			//TODO: decide on how long strings, etc. live for in memory
+			if (str->type == TOY_STRING_NODE) {
+				char* buffer = Toy_getStringRawBuffer(str);
+				Toy_print(buffer);
+				free(buffer);
+			}
+			else if (str->type == TOY_STRING_LEAF) {
+				Toy_print(str->as.leaf.data);
+			}
+			else if (str->type == TOY_STRING_NAME) {
+				Toy_print(str->as.name.data); //should this be a thing?
+			}
+			break;
+		}
+
 		case TOY_VALUE_ARRAY:
 		case TOY_VALUE_DICTIONARY:
 		case TOY_VALUE_FUNCTION:
@@ -274,6 +301,25 @@ static void processPrint(Toy_VM* vm) {
 	}
 }

+static void processConcat(Toy_VM* vm) {
+	Toy_Value right = Toy_popStack(&vm->stack);
+	Toy_Value left = Toy_popStack(&vm->stack);
+
+	if (!TOY_VALUE_IS_STRING(left)) {
+		Toy_error("Failed to concatenate a value that is not a string");
+		return;
+	}
+
+	if (!TOY_VALUE_IS_STRING(left)) {
+		Toy_error("Failed to concatenate a value that is not a string");
+		return;
+	}
+
+	//all good
+	Toy_String* result = Toy_concatStrings(&vm->stringBucket, TOY_VALUE_AS_STRING(left), TOY_VALUE_AS_STRING(right));
+	Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, TOY_VALUE_FROM_STRING(result));
+}
+
 static void process(Toy_VM* vm) {
 	while(true) {
 		Toy_OpcodeType opcode = READ_BYTE(vm);
@@ -320,6 +366,10 @@ static void process(Toy_VM* vm) {
 				processPrint(vm);
 				break;

+			case TOY_OPCODE_CONCAT:
+				processConcat(vm);
+				break;
+
 			//not yet implemented
 			case TOY_OPCODE_LOAD:
 			case TOY_OPCODE_LOAD_LONG:
@@ -373,32 +423,34 @@ void Toy_bindVMToRoutine(Toy_VM* vm, unsigned char* routine) {

 	//read the header metadata
 	vm->routineSize = READ_UNSIGNED_INT(vm);
-	vm->paramCount = READ_UNSIGNED_INT(vm);
-	vm->jumpsCount = READ_UNSIGNED_INT(vm);
-	vm->dataCount = READ_UNSIGNED_INT(vm);
-	vm->subsCount = READ_UNSIGNED_INT(vm);
+	vm->paramSize = READ_UNSIGNED_INT(vm);
+	vm->jumpsSize = READ_UNSIGNED_INT(vm);
+	vm->dataSize = READ_UNSIGNED_INT(vm);
+	vm->subsSize = READ_UNSIGNED_INT(vm);

 	//read the header addresses
-	if (vm->paramCount > 0) {
+	if (vm->paramSize > 0) {
 		vm->paramAddr = READ_UNSIGNED_INT(vm);
 	}

 	vm->codeAddr = READ_UNSIGNED_INT(vm); //required

-	if (vm->jumpsCount > 0) {
+	if (vm->jumpsSize > 0) {
 		vm->jumpsAddr = READ_UNSIGNED_INT(vm);
 	}

-	if (vm->dataCount > 0) {
+	if (vm->dataSize > 0) {
 		vm->dataAddr = READ_UNSIGNED_INT(vm);
 	}

-	if (vm->subsCount > 0) {
+	if (vm->subsSize > 0) {
 		vm->subsAddr = READ_UNSIGNED_INT(vm);
 	}

-	//preallocate the scope & stack
+	//allocate the stack, scope, and memory
 	vm->stack = Toy_allocateStack();
+	//TODO: scope
+	vm->stringBucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 }

 void Toy_runVM(Toy_VM* vm) {
@@ -412,13 +464,12 @@ void Toy_runVM(Toy_VM* vm) {
 }

 void Toy_freeVM(Toy_VM* vm) {
-	//clear the stack
+	//clear the stack, scope and memory
 	Toy_freeStack(vm->stack);
-
 	//TODO: clear the scope
+	Toy_freeBucket(&vm->stringBucket);

 	//free the bytecode
-
 	free(vm->bc);
 	Toy_resetVM(vm);
 }
@@ -429,10 +480,10 @@ void Toy_resetVM(Toy_VM* vm) {
 	vm->routine = NULL;
 	vm->routineSize = 0;

-	vm->paramCount = 0;
-	vm->jumpsCount = 0;
-	vm->dataCount = 0;
-	vm->subsCount = 0;
+	vm->paramSize = 0;
+	vm->jumpsSize = 0;
+	vm->dataSize = 0;
+	vm->subsSize = 0;

 	vm->paramAddr = 0;
 	vm->codeAddr = 0;
--- a/source/toy_vm.h
+++ b/source/toy_vm.h
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 #include "toy_common.h"

 #include "toy_stack.h"
+#include "toy_bucket.h"

 typedef struct Toy_VM {
 	//hold the raw bytecode
@@ -12,10 +13,10 @@ typedef struct Toy_VM {
 	unsigned char* routine;
 	unsigned int routineSize;

-	unsigned int paramCount;
-	unsigned int jumpsCount;
-	unsigned int dataCount;
-	unsigned int subsCount;
+	unsigned int paramSize;
+	unsigned int jumpsSize;
+	unsigned int dataSize;
+	unsigned int subsSize;

 	unsigned int paramAddr;
 	unsigned int codeAddr;
@@ -30,6 +31,9 @@ typedef struct Toy_VM {

 	//stack - immediate-level values only
 	Toy_Stack* stack;
+
+	//easy access to memory
+	Toy_Bucket* stringBucket;
 } Toy_VM;

 TOY_API void Toy_bindVM(Toy_VM* vm, unsigned char* bytecode); //process the version data
--- a/tests/cases/test_ast.c
+++ b/tests/cases/test_ast.c
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ int test_sizeof_ast_64bit() {
 	//run for each type
 	TEST_SIZEOF(Toy_AstType, 4);
 	TEST_SIZEOF(Toy_AstBlock, 32);
-	TEST_SIZEOF(Toy_AstValue, 12);
+	TEST_SIZEOF(Toy_AstValue, 24);
 	TEST_SIZEOF(Toy_AstUnary, 16);
 	TEST_SIZEOF(Toy_AstBinary, 24);
 	TEST_SIZEOF(Toy_AstGroup, 16);
@@ -245,7 +245,7 @@ int main() {
 #endif

 	{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucketHandle = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucketHandle = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_type_emission(&bucketHandle);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucketHandle);
 		if (res == 0) {
--- a/tests/cases/test_bucket.c
+++ b/tests/cases/test_bucket.c
@@ -69,33 +69,6 @@ int test_buckets() {
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 	}

-	//test partitioning a bucket, several times, with an internal expansion, and awkward sizes
-	{
-		//init
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(32);
-
-		//grab some memory
-		void* a = Toy_partitionBucket(&bucket, 16);
-		void* b = Toy_partitionBucket(&bucket, 10);
-		void* c = Toy_partitionBucket(&bucket, 10);
-		void* d = Toy_partitionBucket(&bucket, 10);
-
-		//checks - awkward and mismatched sizes is not officially supported, but it should work
-		if (
-			bucket->capacity != 32 ||
-			bucket->count != 20 ||
-			bucket->next == NULL ||
-			bucket->next->capacity != 32 ||
-			bucket->next->count != 26)
-		{
-			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: failed to expand 'Toy_Bucket' with awkward/mismatched sizes correctly\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
-			return -1;
-		}
-
-		//cleanup
-		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
-	}
-
 	return 0;
 }

--- a/tests/cases/test_bytecode.c
+++ b/tests/cases/test_bytecode.c
@@ -175,7 +175,7 @@ int main() {
 	int total = 0, res = 0;

 	{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_bytecode_header(&bucket);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 		if (res == 0) {
@@ -185,7 +185,7 @@ int main() {
 	}

 	{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_bytecode_from_source(&bucket);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 		if (res == 0) {
--- a/tests/cases/test_parser.c
+++ b/tests/cases/test_parser.c
@@ -1,7 +1,9 @@
 #include "toy_parser.h"
 #include "toy_console_colors.h"
+#include "toy_string.h"

 #include <stdio.h>
+#include <string.h>

 //utils
 Toy_Ast* makeAstFromSource(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, const char* source) {
@@ -184,7 +186,7 @@ int test_values(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle) {
 			TOY_VALUE_IS_INTEGER(ast->block.child->value.value) == false ||
 			TOY_VALUE_AS_INTEGER(ast->block.child->value.value) != 1234567890)
 		{
-			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: failed to run the parser with integer value 42 with separators\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
+			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: failed to run the parser with integer value 1_234_567_890\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
 			return -1;
 		}
 	}
@@ -202,7 +204,26 @@ int test_values(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle) {
 			TOY_VALUE_IS_FLOAT(ast->block.child->value.value) == false ||
 			TOY_VALUE_AS_FLOAT(ast->block.child->value.value) != 3.14159265f)
 		{
-			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: failed to run the parser with float value 3.1415 with separators\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
+			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: failed to run the parser with float value 3.141_592_65\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
+			return -1;
+		}
+	}
+
+	//test string
+	{
+		Toy_Ast* ast = makeAstFromSource(bucketHandle, "\"Hello world!\";");
+
+		//check if it worked
+		if (
+			ast == NULL ||
+			ast->type != TOY_AST_BLOCK ||
+			ast->block.child == NULL ||
+			ast->block.child->type != TOY_AST_VALUE ||
+			TOY_VALUE_IS_STRING(ast->block.child->value.value) == false ||
+			TOY_VALUE_AS_STRING(ast->block.child->value.value)->type != TOY_STRING_LEAF ||
+			strcmp(TOY_VALUE_AS_STRING(ast->block.child->value.value)->as.leaf.data, "Hello world!") != 0)
+		{
+			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: failed to run the parser with string value 'Hello world!'\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
 			return -1;
 		}
 	}
@@ -578,7 +599,7 @@ int main() {
 	int total = 0, res = 0;

 	{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_simple_empty_parsers(&bucket);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 		if (res == 0) {
@@ -588,7 +609,7 @@ int main() {
 	}

 	{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_values(&bucket);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 		if (res == 0) {
@@ -598,7 +619,7 @@ int main() {
 	}

 	{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_unary(&bucket);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 		if (res == 0) {
@@ -608,7 +629,7 @@ int main() {
 	}

 	{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_binary(&bucket);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 		if (res == 0) {
@@ -618,7 +639,7 @@ int main() {
 	}

 	{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_precedence(&bucket);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 		if (res == 0) {
--- a/tests/cases/test_routine.c
+++ b/tests/cases/test_routine.c
@@ -318,6 +318,105 @@ int test_routine_expressions(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle) {
 		free(buffer);
 	}

+	//produce a string value
+	{
+		//setup
+		const char* source = "\"Hello world!\";";
+		Toy_Lexer lexer;
+		Toy_Parser parser;
+
+		Toy_bindLexer(&lexer, source);
+		Toy_bindParser(&parser, &lexer);
+		Toy_Ast* ast = Toy_scanParser(bucketHandle, &parser);
+
+		//run
+		void* buffer = Toy_compileRoutine(ast);
+		int len = ((int*)buffer)[0];
+
+		//check header
+		int* header = (int*)buffer;
+
+		if (header[0] != 64 || //total size
+			header[1] != 0 || //param size
+			header[2] != 4 || //jumps size
+			header[3] != 16 || //data size
+			header[4] != 0 || //subs size
+
+			// header[??] != ?? || //params address
+			header[5] != 32 || //code address
+			header[6] != 44 || //jumps address
+			header[7] != 48 || //data address
+			// header[??] != ?? || //subs address
+
+			false)
+		{
+			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: failed to produce the expected routine header, source: %s\n" TOY_CC_RESET, source);
+
+			//cleanup and return
+			free(buffer);
+			return -1;
+		}
+
+		void* code = buffer + 32; //8 values in the header, each 4 bytes
+
+		//check code
+		if (
+			//code start
+			*((unsigned char*)(code + 0)) != TOY_OPCODE_READ ||
+			*((unsigned char*)(code + 1)) != TOY_VALUE_STRING ||
+			*((unsigned char*)(code + 2)) != 0 ||
+			*((unsigned char*)(code + 3)) != 0 ||
+			*(unsigned int*)(code + 4) != 0 || //the jump index
+			*((unsigned char*)(code + 8)) != TOY_OPCODE_RETURN ||
+			*((unsigned char*)(code + 9)) != 0 ||
+			*((unsigned char*)(code + 10)) != 0 ||
+			*((unsigned char*)(code + 11)) != 0 ||
+
+			false)
+		{
+			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: failed to produce the expected routine code, source: %s\n" TOY_CC_RESET, source);
+
+			//cleanup and return
+			free(buffer);
+			return -1;
+		}
+
+		void* jumps = code + 12;
+
+		//check jumps
+		if (
+			//code start
+			*(unsigned int*)(jumps + 0) != 0 || //the address relative to the start of the data section
+
+			false)
+		{
+			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: failed to produce the expected routine jumps, source: %s\n" TOY_CC_RESET, source);
+
+			//cleanup and return
+			free(buffer);
+			return -1;
+		}
+
+		void* data = jumps + 4;
+
+		//check data
+		if (
+			//data start (the end of the data is padded to the nearest multiple of 4)
+			strcmp( ((char*)data) + ((unsigned int*)jumps)[0], "Hello world!" ) != 0 ||
+
+			false)
+		{
+			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: failed to produce the expected routine data, source: %s\n" TOY_CC_RESET, source);
+
+			//cleanup and return
+			free(buffer);
+			return -1;
+		}
+
+		//cleanup
+		free(buffer);
+	}
+
 	return 0;
 }

@@ -686,7 +785,7 @@ int main() {
 	int total = 0, res = 0;

 	{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_routine_expressions(&bucket);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 		if (res == 0) {
@@ -696,7 +795,7 @@ int main() {
 	}

 	{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_routine_binary(&bucket);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 		if (res == 0) {
@@ -706,7 +805,7 @@ int main() {
 	}

 		{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_routine_keywords(&bucket);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 		if (res == 0) {
--- a/tests/cases/test_string.c
+++ b/tests/cases/test_string.c
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ int test_string_allocation() {
 	//allocate a single string from a c-string
 	{
 		//setup
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);

 		const char* cstring = "Hello world";
 		Toy_String* str = Toy_createString(&bucket, cstring);
@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ int test_string_allocation() {
 	//copy and deep copy a string
 	{
 		//setup
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);

 		const char* cstring = "Hello world";
 		Toy_String* str = Toy_createString(&bucket, cstring);
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ int test_string_allocation() {
 	//copy and deep copy a name string
 	{
 		//setup
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);

 		const char* cstring = "Hello world";
 		Toy_String* str = Toy_createNameString(&bucket, cstring);
@@ -129,7 +129,7 @@ int test_string_allocation() {
 	//allocate a zero-length string
 	{
 		//setup
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);

 		const char* cstring = "";
 		Toy_String* str = Toy_createString(&bucket, cstring);
@@ -138,8 +138,7 @@ int test_string_allocation() {
 		if (str->type != TOY_STRING_LEAF ||
 			str->length != 0 ||
 			str->refCount != 1 ||
-			strcmp(str->as.leaf.data, "") != 0 ||
-			bucket->count != sizeof(Toy_String) + 1) //1 for the null character
+			strcmp(str->as.leaf.data, "") != 0)
 		{
 			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: Failed to allocate a Toy_String with zero length\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
 			Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
@@ -157,7 +156,7 @@ int test_string_allocation() {

 int test_string_concatenation() {
 	//one big bucket o' fun
-	Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+	Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);

 	//concatenate two strings, and check the refcounts
 	{
@@ -298,7 +297,7 @@ int test_string_equality() {
 	//simple string equality (no concats)
 	{
 		//setup
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		Toy_String* helloWorldOne = Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hello world");
 		Toy_String* helloWorldTwo = Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hello world");
 		Toy_String* helloEveryone = Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hello everyone");
@@ -348,7 +347,7 @@ int test_string_equality() {
 	//string equality (with concat left)
 	{
 		//setup
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		Toy_String* helloWorldOne = Toy_concatStrings(&bucket, Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hello "), Toy_createString(&bucket, "world"));
 		Toy_String* helloWorldTwo = Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hello world");
 		Toy_String* helloEveryone = Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hello everyone");
@@ -398,7 +397,7 @@ int test_string_equality() {
 	//string equality (with concat right)
 	{
 		//setup
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		Toy_String* helloWorldOne = Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hello world");
 		Toy_String* helloWorldTwo = Toy_concatStrings(&bucket, Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hello "), Toy_createString(&bucket, "world"));
 		Toy_String* helloEveryone = Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hello everyone");
@@ -424,7 +423,7 @@ int test_string_equality() {
 	//string equality (with concat both)
 	{
 		//setup - these concat points are deliberately different
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		Toy_String* helloWorldOne = Toy_concatStrings(&bucket, Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hello "), Toy_createString(&bucket, "world"));
 		Toy_String* helloWorldTwo = Toy_concatStrings(&bucket, Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hello"), Toy_createString(&bucket, " world"));
 		Toy_String* helloEveryone = Toy_concatStrings(&bucket, Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hell"), Toy_createString(&bucket, "world"));
@@ -462,7 +461,7 @@ int test_string_equality() {
 	//string equality (with concat arbitrary)
 	{
 		//setup - The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		Toy_String* helloWorldOne = Toy_concatStrings(&bucket,
 			Toy_createString(&bucket, "The quick brown "),
 			Toy_concatStrings(&bucket,
@@ -526,7 +525,7 @@ int test_string_equality() {
 	//string equality (empty strings, no concats)
 	{
 		//setup
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		Toy_String* helloWorldOne = Toy_createString(&bucket, "");
 		Toy_String* helloWorldTwo = Toy_createString(&bucket, "");
 		Toy_String* helloEveryone = Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hello everyone");
@@ -576,7 +575,7 @@ int test_string_equality() {
 	//string equality (empty strings, deep concats)
 	{
 		//setup
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		Toy_String* helloWorldOne = Toy_concatStrings(&bucket,
 			Toy_createString(&bucket, ""),
 			Toy_concatStrings(&bucket,
@@ -652,7 +651,7 @@ int test_string_equality() {
 	//simple name equality
 	{
 		//setup
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		Toy_String* helloWorldOne = Toy_createNameString(&bucket, "Hello world");
 		Toy_String* helloWorldTwo = Toy_createNameString(&bucket, "Hello world");
 		Toy_String* helloEveryone = Toy_createNameString(&bucket, "Hello everyone");
@@ -706,7 +705,7 @@ int test_string_diffs() {
 	//simple string diffs (no concats)
 	{
 		//setup
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		Toy_String* helloEveryone = Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hello everyone");
 		Toy_String* helloUniverse = Toy_createString(&bucket, "Hello universe");

@@ -743,7 +742,7 @@ int test_string_diffs() {
 	//string diffs (with concat arbitrary)
 	{
 		//setup - The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(1024);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		Toy_String* pangram = Toy_concatStrings(&bucket,
 			Toy_createString(&bucket, "The quick brown "),
 			Toy_concatStrings(&bucket,
--- a/tests/cases/test_value.c
+++ b/tests/cases/test_value.c
@@ -9,7 +9,11 @@
 int main() {
 	//test for the correct size
 	{
+#if TOY_BITNESS == 64
+		if (sizeof(Toy_Value) != 16) {
+#else
 		if (sizeof(Toy_Value) != 8) {
+#endif
 			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: 'Toy_Value' is an unexpected size in memory\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
 			return -1;
 		}
@@ -56,7 +60,7 @@ int main() {
 	//test value hashing
 	{
 		//setup
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(512);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);

 		//values
 		Toy_Value n = TOY_VALUE_FROM_NULL();
--- a/tests/cases/test_vm.c
+++ b/tests/cases/test_vm.c
@@ -55,10 +55,10 @@ int test_setup_and_teardown(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle) {
 		if (
 			vm.routine - vm.bc != headerSize ||
 			vm.routineSize != 72 ||
-			vm.paramCount != 0 ||
-			vm.jumpsCount != 0 ||
-			vm.dataCount != 0 ||
-			vm.subsCount != 0
+			vm.paramSize != 0 ||
+			vm.jumpsSize != 0 ||
+			vm.dataSize != 0 ||
+			vm.subsSize != 0
 		)
 		{
 			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: failed to setup and teadown Toy_VM, source: %s\n" TOY_CC_RESET, source);
@@ -210,6 +210,89 @@ int test_keywords(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle) {
 		//teadown
 		Toy_resetPrintCallback();
 		free(callbackUtilReceived);
+		callbackUtilReceived = NULL;
+		Toy_freeVM(&vm);
+	}
+
+	//test print with a string
+	{
+		//setup
+		Toy_setPrintCallback(callbackUtil);
+		const char* source = "print \"Hello world!\";";
+
+		Toy_Lexer lexer;
+		Toy_bindLexer(&lexer, source);
+
+		Toy_Parser parser;
+		Toy_bindParser(&parser, &lexer);
+
+		Toy_Ast* ast = Toy_scanParser(bucketHandle, &parser);
+		Toy_Bytecode bc = Toy_compileBytecode(ast);
+
+		Toy_VM vm;
+		Toy_bindVM(&vm, bc.ptr);
+
+		//run
+		Toy_runVM(&vm);
+
+		//check the final state of the stack
+		if (callbackUtilReceived == NULL ||
+			strcmp(callbackUtilReceived, "Hello world!") != 0)
+		{
+			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: Unexpected value '%s' passed to print keyword, source: %s\n" TOY_CC_RESET, callbackUtilReceived != NULL ? callbackUtilReceived : "NULL", source);
+
+			//cleanup and return
+			Toy_resetPrintCallback();
+			free(callbackUtilReceived);
+			Toy_freeVM(&vm);
+			return -1;
+		}
+
+		//teadown
+		Toy_resetPrintCallback();
+		free(callbackUtilReceived);
+		callbackUtilReceived = NULL;
+		Toy_freeVM(&vm);
+	}
+
+	//test print with a string concat
+	{
+		//setup
+		Toy_setPrintCallback(callbackUtil);
+		const char* source = "print \"Hello\" .. \"world!\";";
+
+		Toy_Lexer lexer;
+		Toy_bindLexer(&lexer, source);
+
+		Toy_Parser parser;
+		Toy_bindParser(&parser, &lexer);
+
+		Toy_Ast* ast = Toy_scanParser(bucketHandle, &parser);
+		Toy_Bytecode bc = Toy_compileBytecode(ast);
+
+		Toy_VM vm;
+		Toy_bindVM(&vm, bc.ptr);
+
+		//run
+		Toy_runVM(&vm);
+
+		//check the final state of the stack
+		if (callbackUtilReceived == NULL ||
+			strcmp(callbackUtilReceived, "Helloworld!") != 0)
+		{
+			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: Unexpected value '%s' passed to print keyword, source: %s\n" TOY_CC_RESET, callbackUtilReceived != NULL ? callbackUtilReceived : "NULL", source);
+
+			//cleanup and return
+			Toy_resetPrintCallback();
+			free(callbackUtilReceived);
+			Toy_freeVM(&vm);
+			return -1;
+		}
+
+		//teadown
+		Toy_resetPrintCallback();
+		free(callbackUtilReceived);
+		callbackUtilReceived = NULL;
 		Toy_freeVM(&vm);
 	}

@@ -221,7 +304,7 @@ int main() {
 	int total = 0, res = 0;

 	{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_setup_and_teardown(&bucket);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 		if (res == 0) {
@@ -231,7 +314,7 @@ int main() {
 	}

 	{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_simple_execution(&bucket);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 		if (res == 0) {
@@ -241,7 +324,7 @@ int main() {
 	}

 	{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_opcode_not_equal(&bucket);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 		if (res == 0) {
@@ -251,7 +334,7 @@ int main() {
 	}

 	{
-		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(sizeof(Toy_Ast) * 32);
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
 		res = test_keywords(&bucket);
 		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 		if (res == 0) {