Expanded bytecode inspector, added functions to Toy_copyValue

2026-04-20 01:04:08 +10:00 · 2026-04-17 11:55:46 +10:00
parent 81c95ff69d
commit 5b101d763e
12 changed files with 175 additions and 77 deletions
--- a/.notes/bytecode-format.txt
+++ b/.notes/bytecode-format.txt
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ Bytecode Format Structure
 .header:
 	N total size       # size of this routine, including all data and subroutines
 	N .jumps count     # the number of entries in the jump table (should be data count + routine count)
-	N .param count     # the number of parameter fields expected (used for subroutines)
+	N .param count     # the number of parameter fields expected (a secondary jump table, used for subroutine parameters)
 	N .data count      # the number of data fields present
 	N .subs count      # the number of subroutines present
 	.code start        # absolute address of .code;      mandatory
@@ -48,14 +48,14 @@ Bytecode Format Structure
 	# opcode instructions read and 'executed' by the interpreter (aligned to 4-byte widths)
 	[READ, TOY_VALUE_STRING, Toy_StringType, stringLength] [jumpIndex]

-.param:
-	# a list of names, stored in .data, to be used for any provided function arguments
-
-.jumptable:
+.jumps:
 	# a layer of indirection for quickly looking up values in .data and .subs
 	0 -> {string, 0x00}
 	4 -> {fn, 0xFF}

+.param:
+	# a list of names, stored in .data, to be used for any provided function arguments
+
 .data:
 	# data that can't be cleanly embedded into .code, such as strings
 	"Hello world\0"
--- a/repl/bytecode_inspector.c
+++ b/repl/bytecode_inspector.c
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@

 #include <stdio.h>
 #include <stdlib.h>
+#include <ctype.h>

 int inspect_instruction(unsigned char* bytecode, unsigned int pc, unsigned int jumps_addr, unsigned int data_addr);
 int inspect_read(unsigned char* bytecode, unsigned int pc, unsigned int jumps_addr, unsigned int data_addr);
@@ -15,31 +16,34 @@ int inspect_read(unsigned char* bytecode, unsigned int pc, unsigned int jumps_ad
 // void inspect_data(unsigned char* bytecode, unsigned int pc, unsigned int size);
 // void inspect_subs(unsigned char* bytecode, unsigned int pc, unsigned int size);

+#define ISPRINT_SANITIZE(x) (isprint((int)x) > 0 ? (x) : '_')
+
 #define MARKER_VALUE(pc, type) \
 	(pc * sizeof(type))

-#define MARKER "\033[" TOY_CC_FONT_BLACK "m" " %lu\t" TOY_CC_RESET
+#define MARKER "\t\033[" TOY_CC_FONT_BLACK "m" " %lu\t" TOY_CC_RESET
+#define FONT_BLACK "\033[" TOY_CC_FONT_BLACK "m"

 //exposed functions
-void inspect_bytecode(unsigned char* bytecode) {
+int inspect_bytecode(unsigned char* bytecode) {
 	//TODO: handle version info

-	unsigned int const header_size = 0;
-	unsigned int const header_jumps = 1;
-	unsigned int const header_param = 2;
-	unsigned int const header_data = 3;
-	unsigned int const header_subs = 4;
+	unsigned int const bytecodeSize = ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[0];
+	unsigned int const jumpsSize = ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[1];
+	unsigned int const paramSize = ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[2];
+	unsigned int const dataSize = ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[3];
+	unsigned int const subsSize = ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[4];

-	//header size
-	printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "Bytecode Size: \t\t%u" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(header_size, unsigned int), ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[header_size]);
+	printf(FONT_BLACK ".header:\r" TOY_CC_RESET);
+
+	//bytecode size
+	printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "Bytecode Size: \t\t%u" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(0, unsigned int), bytecodeSize);

 	//header counts
-	printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "Jumps Size:\t\t%u" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(header_jumps, unsigned int), ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[header_jumps]);
-	printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "Param Size:\t\t%u" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(header_param, unsigned int), ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[header_param]);
-	printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "Data Size:\t\t%u" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(header_data, unsigned int), ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[header_data]);
-	printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "Subs Size:\t\t%u" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(header_subs, unsigned int), ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[header_subs]);
-
-	printf("\n---\n");
+	printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "Jumps Size:\t\t%u" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(1, unsigned int), jumpsSize);
+	printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "Param Size:\t\t%u" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(2, unsigned int), paramSize);
+	printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "Data Size:\t\t%u" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(3, unsigned int), dataSize);
+	printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "Subs Size:\t\t%u" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(4, unsigned int), subsSize);

 	//some addresses may be absent
 	unsigned int addr_pc = 4;
@@ -49,6 +53,8 @@ void inspect_bytecode(unsigned char* bytecode) {
 	unsigned int data_addr = 0;
 	unsigned int subs_addr = 0;

+	//bugfix
+	unsigned int code_end = 0;

 	//header addresses
 	if (true) {
@@ -57,42 +63,93 @@ void inspect_bytecode(unsigned char* bytecode) {
 		code_addr = ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[addr_pc];
 	}

-	if (((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[header_jumps] > 0) {
+	if (jumpsSize > 0) {
 		addr_pc++;
 		printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "Jumps Address:\t\t%u" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(addr_pc, unsigned int), ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[addr_pc]);
 		jumps_addr = ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[addr_pc];
+		if (code_end == 0) code_end = jumps_addr;
 	}

-	if (((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[header_param] > 0) {
+	if (paramSize > 0) {
 		addr_pc++;
 		printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "Param Address:\t\t%u" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(addr_pc, unsigned int), ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[addr_pc]);
 		param_addr = ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[addr_pc];
+		if (code_end == 0) code_end = param_addr;
 	}

-	if (((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[header_data] > 0) {
+	if (dataSize > 0) {
 		addr_pc++;
 		printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "Data Address:\t\t%u" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(addr_pc, unsigned int), ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[addr_pc]);
 		data_addr = ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[addr_pc];
+		if (code_end == 0) code_end = data_addr;
 	}

-	if (((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[header_subs] > 0) {
+	if (subsSize > 0) {
 		addr_pc++;
 		printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "Subs Address:\t\t%u" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(addr_pc, unsigned int), ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[addr_pc]);
 		subs_addr = ((unsigned int*)(bytecode))[addr_pc];
+		if (code_end == 0) code_end = subs_addr;
 	}

-	printf("\n---\n");
+	if (code_end == 0) code_end = bytecodeSize; //very hacky
+
+	printf(FONT_BLACK ".code:\r" TOY_CC_RESET);

 	unsigned int pc = code_addr;
-	while(bytecode[pc] != TOY_OPCODE_RETURN) {
+	while(pc < code_end) {
 		pc += inspect_instruction(bytecode, pc, jumps_addr, data_addr);
 	}
-	pc += inspect_instruction(bytecode, pc, jumps_addr, data_addr); //one more for the final return

-	(void)jumps_addr;
-	(void)param_addr;
-	(void)data_addr;
-	(void)subs_addr;
+	//jumps
+	if (jumpsSize > 0) {
+		printf(FONT_BLACK ".jumps:\r" TOY_CC_RESET);
+
+		for (unsigned int i = 0; (i*4) < jumpsSize; i++) {
+			printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "%u (data %u)" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(jumps_addr + i, unsigned int),
+				i,
+				((unsigned int*)(bytecode + jumps_addr))[i] + data_addr
+			);
+		}
+	}
+
+	//param
+	if (paramSize > 0) {
+		printf(FONT_BLACK ".param:\r" TOY_CC_RESET);
+
+		for (unsigned int i = 0; (i*4) < paramSize; i += 2) {
+			printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "%u (type %s, data %u)" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(param_addr + i, unsigned int),
+				i,
+				Toy_private_getValueTypeAsCString(((unsigned int*)(bytecode + param_addr))[i + 1]),
+				((unsigned int*)(bytecode + param_addr))[i] + data_addr
+			);
+		}
+	}
+
+	//data; assume there's only strings for now
+	if (dataSize > 0) {
+		printf(FONT_BLACK ".data:\r" TOY_CC_RESET);
+
+		for (unsigned int i = 0; (i*4) < dataSize; i++) {
+			printf(MARKER TOY_CC_NOTICE "%c %c %c %c" TOY_CC_RESET "\n", MARKER_VALUE(data_addr + i, unsigned int),
+				ISPRINT_SANITIZE(((char*)(bytecode + data_addr + (i*4)))[0]),
+				ISPRINT_SANITIZE(((char*)(bytecode + data_addr + (i*4)))[1]),
+				ISPRINT_SANITIZE(((char*)(bytecode + data_addr + (i*4)))[2]),
+				ISPRINT_SANITIZE(((char*)(bytecode + data_addr + (i*4)))[3])
+			);
+		}
+	}
+
+	//subs
+	if (subsSize > 0) {
+		printf(FONT_BLACK ".subs:\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
+
+		unsigned int i = 0;
+		while (i < subsSize) {
+			i += inspect_bytecode(bytecode + subs_addr + i);
+		}
+	}
+
+	return bytecodeSize;
 }

 int inspect_instruction(unsigned char* bytecode, unsigned int pc, unsigned int jumps_addr, unsigned int data_addr) {
@@ -129,7 +186,7 @@ int inspect_instruction(unsigned char* bytecode, unsigned int pc, unsigned int j
 			return 4;

 		case TOY_OPCODE_INVOKE:
-			printf(MARKER "INVOKE %s (%d args)\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char),
+			printf(MARKER "INVOKE as '%s' (%d parameters)\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char),
 			Toy_private_getValueTypeAsCString(bytecode[pc + 1]),
 			bytecode[pc + 2]);
 			return 4;
@@ -143,23 +200,23 @@ int inspect_instruction(unsigned char* bytecode, unsigned int pc, unsigned int j
 			return 4;

 		case TOY_OPCODE_ADD:
-			printf(MARKER "ADD %s\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char), bytecode[pc + 1] == TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN ? "ASSIGN" : "");
+			printf(MARKER "ADD %s\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char), bytecode[pc + 1] == TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN ? "and ASSIGN" : "");
 			return 4;

 		case TOY_OPCODE_SUBTRACT:
-			printf(MARKER "SUBTRACT %s\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char), bytecode[pc + 1] == TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN ? "ASSIGN" : "");
+			printf(MARKER "SUBTRACT %s\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char), bytecode[pc + 1] == TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN ? "and ASSIGN" : "");
 			return 4;

 		case TOY_OPCODE_MULTIPLY:
-			printf(MARKER "MULTIPLY %s\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char), bytecode[pc + 1] == TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN ? "ASSIGN" : "");
+			printf(MARKER "MULTIPLY %s\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char), bytecode[pc + 1] == TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN ? "and ASSIGN" : "");
 			return 4;

 		case TOY_OPCODE_DIVIDE:
-			printf(MARKER "DIVIDE %s\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char), bytecode[pc + 1] == TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN ? "ASSIGN" : "");
+			printf(MARKER "DIVIDE %s\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char), bytecode[pc + 1] == TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN ? "and ASSIGN" : "");
 			return 4;

 		case TOY_OPCODE_MODULO:
-			printf(MARKER "MODULO %s\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char), bytecode[pc + 1] == TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN ? "ASSIGN" : "");
+			printf(MARKER "MODULO %s\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char), bytecode[pc + 1] == TOY_OPCODE_ASSIGN ? "and ASSIGN" : "");
 			return 4;

 		case TOY_OPCODE_COMPARE_EQUAL:
@@ -291,6 +348,7 @@ int inspect_read(unsigned char* bytecode, unsigned int pc, unsigned int jumps_ad
 		case TOY_VALUE_STRING: {
 			Toy_StringType stringType = (Toy_StringType)(*(bytecode + pc + 2)); //Probably not needed
 			int len = bytecode[pc + 3]; //only used for names?
+			(void)len;

 			(void)stringType;

@@ -298,13 +356,13 @@ int inspect_read(unsigned char* bytecode, unsigned int pc, unsigned int jumps_ad
 			unsigned int jumpValue = *((unsigned int*)(bytecode + jumps_addr + indexValue));
 			char* cstr = ((char*)(bytecode + data_addr + jumpValue));

-			printf(MARKER "READ STRING (%d) %s\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char), len, cstr);
+			printf(MARKER "READ STRING %u '%s'\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char), indexValue, cstr);

 			return 8;
 		}

 		case TOY_VALUE_FUNCTION:
-			printf(MARKER "READ FUNCTION (%d params)\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char), bytecode[pc + 2]);
+			printf(MARKER "READ FUNCTION '%u' (%d params)\n", MARKER_VALUE(pc, unsigned char), *((unsigned int*)(bytecode + pc + 4)), bytecode[pc + 2]);
 			return 8;

 		case TOY_VALUE_ARRAY:
--- a/repl/bytecode_inspector.h
+++ b/repl/bytecode_inspector.h
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
 #pragma once

-void inspect_bytecode(unsigned char* bytecode);
+int inspect_bytecode(unsigned char* bytecode);
--- a/scripts/leapyear.toy
+++ b/scripts/leapyear.toy
@@ -4,6 +4,16 @@ fn isLeapYear(n: int) {
 	if (n % 100 == 0) return false;
 	return n % 4 == 0;
 }
-print isLeapYear(1999);
-print isLeapYear(2000);
-print isLeapYear(2004);
+
+//check for string reuse
+{
+	print isLeapYear(1999);
+}
+
+{
+	print isLeapYear(2000);
+}
+
+{
+	print isLeapYear(2004);
+}
--- a/source/toy_compiler.c
+++ b/source/toy_compiler.c
@@ -1222,10 +1222,13 @@ static void writeBytecodeBody(Toy_Bytecode* mb, Toy_Ast* ast) {

 	writeBytecodeFromAst(&mb, ast);

-	EMIT_BYTE(&mb, code, TOY_OPCODE_RETURN); //end terminator
-	EMIT_BYTE(&mb, code, 0); //4-byte alignment
-	EMIT_BYTE(&mb, code, 0);
-	EMIT_BYTE(&mb, code, 0);
+	//append an extra return if needed
+	if (mb->codeCount <= 4 || mb->code[mb->codeCount - 4] != TOY_OPCODE_RETURN) { //if empty or no return statement
+		EMIT_BYTE(&mb, code, TOY_OPCODE_RETURN); //end terminator
+		EMIT_BYTE(&mb, code, 0); //4-byte alignment
+		EMIT_BYTE(&mb, code, 0);
+		EMIT_BYTE(&mb, code, 0);
+	}
 }

 static unsigned char* collateBytecodeBody(Toy_Bytecode* mb) {
--- a/source/toy_function.c
+++ b/source/toy_function.c
@@ -20,6 +20,23 @@ Toy_Function* Toy_createFunctionFromCallback(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_nati
 	return fn;
 }

+Toy_Function* Toy_copyFunction(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Function* original) {
+	Toy_Function* fn = (Toy_Function*)Toy_partitionBucket(bucketHandle, sizeof(Toy_Function));
+
+	if (original->type == TOY_FUNCTION_CUSTOM) {
+		fn->type = original->type;
+		fn->bytecode.code = original->bytecode.code;
+		fn->bytecode.parentScope = original->bytecode.parentScope;
+		Toy_private_incrementScopeRefCount(fn->bytecode.parentScope);
+	}
+	else if (fn->type == TOY_FUNCTION_NATIVE) {
+		fn->type = original->type;
+		fn->native.callback = original->native.callback;
+	}
+
+	return fn;
+}
+
 TOY_API void Toy_freeFunction(Toy_Function* fn) {
 	if (fn->type == TOY_FUNCTION_CUSTOM) {
 		Toy_private_decrementScopeRefCount(fn->bytecode.parentScope);
--- a/source/toy_function.h
+++ b/source/toy_function.h
@@ -34,4 +34,5 @@ typedef union Toy_Function_t {
 TOY_API Toy_Function* Toy_createFunctionFromBytecode(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, unsigned char* bytecode, Toy_Scope* parentScope);
 TOY_API Toy_Function* Toy_createFunctionFromCallback(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_nativeCallback callback);

+TOY_API Toy_Function* Toy_copyFunction(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Function* fn);
 TOY_API void Toy_freeFunction(Toy_Function* fn);
--- a/source/toy_value.c
+++ b/source/toy_value.c
@@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ unsigned int Toy_hashValue(Toy_Value value) {
 	return 0;
 }

-Toy_Value Toy_copyValue(Toy_Value value) {
+Toy_Value Toy_copyValue(Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Value value) {
 	MAYBE_UNWRAP(value);

 	switch(value.type) {
@@ -104,13 +104,13 @@ Toy_Value Toy_copyValue(Toy_Value value) {
 			return TOY_VALUE_FROM_STRING(Toy_copyString(value.as.string));
 		}

-		case TOY_VALUE_ARRAY: {
+		case TOY_VALUE_ARRAY: { //TODO: switch to buckets
 			//arrays probably won't get copied much
 			Toy_Array* ptr = value.as.array;
 			Toy_Array* result = Toy_resizeArray(NULL, ptr->capacity);

 			for (unsigned int i = 0; i < ptr->count; i++) {
-				result->data[i] = Toy_copyValue(ptr->data[i]);
+				result->data[i] = Toy_copyValue(bucketHandle, ptr->data[i]);
 			}

 			result->capacity = ptr->capacity;
@@ -119,15 +119,15 @@ Toy_Value Toy_copyValue(Toy_Value value) {
 			return TOY_VALUE_FROM_ARRAY(result);
 		}

-		case TOY_VALUE_TABLE: {
+		case TOY_VALUE_TABLE: { //TODO: switch to buckets
 			//tables probably won't get copied much
 			Toy_Table* ptr = value.as.table;
 			Toy_Table* result = Toy_private_adjustTableCapacity(NULL, ptr->capacity);

 			for (unsigned int i = 0; i < ptr->capacity; i++) {
 				if (TOY_VALUE_IS_NULL(ptr->data[i].key) != true) {
-					result->data[i].key = Toy_copyValue(ptr->data[i].key);
-					result->data[i].value = Toy_copyValue(ptr->data[i].value);
+					result->data[i].key = Toy_copyValue(bucketHandle, ptr->data[i].key);
+					result->data[i].value = Toy_copyValue(bucketHandle, ptr->data[i].value);
 				}
 			}

@@ -137,9 +137,8 @@ Toy_Value Toy_copyValue(Toy_Value value) {
 			return TOY_VALUE_FROM_TABLE(result);
 		}

-		case TOY_VALUE_FUNCTION: //TODO: implement function duplication elsewhere
-			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: Can't copy a function (use a reference instead), exiting\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
-			exit(-1);
+		case TOY_VALUE_FUNCTION:
+			return TOY_VALUE_FROM_FUNCTION(Toy_copyFunction(bucketHandle, value.as.function));

 		case TOY_VALUE_OPAQUE:
 		case TOY_VALUE_ANY:
--- a/source/toy_value.h
+++ b/source/toy_value.h
@@ -2,9 +2,9 @@

 #include "toy_common.h"
 #include "toy_print.h"
+#include "toy_bucket.h"

 //forward declarations
-struct Toy_Bucket;
 union Toy_String_t;
 struct Toy_Array;
 struct Toy_Table;
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ typedef struct Toy_Value {             //32 | 64 BITNESS
 TOY_API Toy_Value Toy_unwrapValue(Toy_Value value);
 TOY_API unsigned int Toy_hashValue(Toy_Value value);

-TOY_API Toy_Value Toy_copyValue(Toy_Value value);
+TOY_API Toy_Value Toy_copyValue(struct Toy_Bucket** bucketHandle, Toy_Value value);
 TOY_API void Toy_freeValue(Toy_Value value);

 TOY_API bool Toy_checkValueIsTruthy(Toy_Value value);
--- a/source/toy_vm.c
+++ b/source/toy_vm.c
@@ -159,7 +159,7 @@ static void processRead(Toy_VM* vm) {
 			unsigned int addr = (unsigned int)READ_INT(vm);

 			//create and push the function value
-			Toy_Function* function = Toy_createFunctionFromBytecode(&vm->memoryBucket, vm->code + vm->subsAddr + addr, vm->scope);
+			Toy_Function* function = Toy_createFunctionFromBytecode(&vm->memoryBucket, vm->code + vm->subsAddr + addr, vm->scope); //BUG: functions don't have the jumps indirection?
 			value = TOY_VALUE_FROM_FUNCTION(function);

 			break;
@@ -227,7 +227,7 @@ static void processAssign(Toy_VM* vm) {
 	//in case of chaining, leave a copy on the stack
 	bool chainedAssignment = READ_BYTE(vm);
 	if (chainedAssignment) {
-		Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, Toy_copyValue(value));
+		Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, Toy_copyValue(&vm->memoryBucket, value));
 	}

 	//cleanup
@@ -253,7 +253,7 @@ static void processAssignCompound(Toy_VM* vm) {
 			target = TOY_REFERENCE_FROM_POINTER(valuePtr);
 		}
 		else {
-			target = Toy_copyValue(*valuePtr);
+			target = Toy_copyValue(&vm->memoryBucket, *valuePtr);
 		}
 	}

@@ -280,12 +280,12 @@ static void processAssignCompound(Toy_VM* vm) {
 		}

 		//set the value
-		array->data[index] = Toy_copyValue(TOY_VALUE_IS_REFERENCE(value) ? Toy_unwrapValue(value) : value);
+		array->data[index] = Toy_copyValue(&vm->memoryBucket, TOY_VALUE_IS_REFERENCE(value) ? Toy_unwrapValue(value) : value);

 		//in case of chaining, leave a copy on the stack
 		bool chainedAssignment = READ_BYTE(vm);
 		if (chainedAssignment) {
-			Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, Toy_copyValue(value));
+			Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, Toy_copyValue(&vm->memoryBucket, value));
 		}

 		//cleanup
@@ -296,12 +296,12 @@ static void processAssignCompound(Toy_VM* vm) {
 		Toy_Table* table = TOY_VALUE_AS_TABLE(target);

 		//set the value
-		Toy_insertTable(&table, Toy_copyValue(TOY_VALUE_IS_REFERENCE(key) ? Toy_unwrapValue(key) : key), Toy_copyValue(TOY_VALUE_IS_REFERENCE(value) ? Toy_unwrapValue(value) : value));
+		Toy_insertTable(&table, Toy_copyValue(&vm->memoryBucket, TOY_VALUE_IS_REFERENCE(key) ? Toy_unwrapValue(key) : key), Toy_copyValue(&vm->memoryBucket, TOY_VALUE_IS_REFERENCE(value) ? Toy_unwrapValue(value) : value));

 		//in case of chaining, leave a copy on the stack
 		bool chainedAssignment = READ_BYTE(vm);
 		if (chainedAssignment) {
-			Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, Toy_copyValue(value));
+			Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, Toy_copyValue(&vm->memoryBucket, value));
 		}

 		//cleanup
@@ -335,7 +335,7 @@ static void processAccess(Toy_VM* vm) {
 		Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, ref);
 	}
 	else {
-		Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, Toy_copyValue(*valuePtr));
+		Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, Toy_copyValue(&vm->memoryBucket, *valuePtr));
 	}

 	//cleanup
@@ -403,7 +403,7 @@ static void processInvoke(Toy_VM* vm) {

 			//extract and store any results
 			if (resultCount > 0) {
-				Toy_Array* results = Toy_extractResultsFromVM(&subVM, resultCount);
+				Toy_Array* results = Toy_extractResultsFromVM(vm, &subVM, resultCount);

 				for (unsigned int i = 0; i < results->count; i++) {
 					//NOTE: since the results array is being immediately freed, just push each element without a call to copy
@@ -432,7 +432,7 @@ static void processInvoke(Toy_VM* vm) {
 }

 static void processDuplicate(Toy_VM* vm) {
-	Toy_Value value = Toy_copyValue(Toy_peekStack(&vm->stack));
+	Toy_Value value = Toy_copyValue(&vm->memoryBucket, Toy_peekStack(&vm->stack));
 	Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, value);

 	//check for compound assignments
@@ -878,7 +878,7 @@ static void processIndex(Toy_VM* vm) {
 			Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, ref);
 		}
 		else {
-			Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, Toy_copyValue(array->data[i]));
+			Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, Toy_copyValue(&vm->memoryBucket, array->data[i]));
 		}
 	}

@@ -911,7 +911,7 @@ static void processIndex(Toy_VM* vm) {
 			Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, ref);
 		}
 		else {
-			Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, Toy_copyValue(entry->value));
+			Toy_pushStack(&vm->stack, Toy_copyValue(&vm->memoryBucket, entry->value));
 		}
 	}

@@ -1146,7 +1146,7 @@ void Toy_freeVM(Toy_VM* vm) {
 	}
 }

-Toy_Array* Toy_extractResultsFromVM(Toy_VM* subVM, unsigned int resultCount) {
+Toy_Array* Toy_extractResultsFromVM(Toy_VM* parentVM, Toy_VM* subVM, unsigned int resultCount) {
 	if (subVM->stack->count < resultCount) {
 		fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: Too many results requested from VM, exiting\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
 		exit(-1);
@@ -1156,8 +1156,8 @@ Toy_Array* Toy_extractResultsFromVM(Toy_VM* subVM, unsigned int resultCount) {

 	const unsigned int offset = subVM->stack->count - resultCount; //first element to extract

-	for (/* EMPTY */; results->count < resultCount; results->count++) {
-		results->data[results->count] = Toy_copyValue(subVM->stack->data[offset + results->count]);
+	for (/* EMPTY */; results->count < resultCount; results->count++) { //TODO: make sure the parent bucket adopts the child bucket's responsibilities
+		results->data[results->count] = Toy_copyValue(&parentVM->memoryBucket, subVM->stack->data[offset + results->count]);
 	}

 	return results;
--- a/source/toy_vm.h
+++ b/source/toy_vm.h
@@ -51,6 +51,6 @@ void Toy_bindVM(Toy_VM* vm, unsigned char* bytecode, Toy_Scope* parentScope);
 TOY_API unsigned int Toy_runVM(Toy_VM* vm);
 TOY_API void Toy_freeVM(Toy_VM* vm);

-TOY_API Toy_Array* Toy_extractResultsFromVM(Toy_VM* subVM, unsigned int resultCount);
+TOY_API Toy_Array* Toy_extractResultsFromVM(Toy_VM* parentVM, Toy_VM* subVM, unsigned int resultCount);

 //TODO: inject extra data (hook system for external libraries)
--- a/tests/units/test_value.c
+++ b/tests/units/test_value.c
@@ -102,15 +102,21 @@ int test_value_creation(void) {
 int test_value_copying(void) {
 	//test simple integer copy
 	{
+		//setup
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
+
 		Toy_Value original = TOY_VALUE_FROM_INTEGER(42);
-		Toy_Value result = Toy_copyValue(original);
+		Toy_Value result = Toy_copyValue(&bucket, original);

 		if (!TOY_VALUE_IS_INTEGER(result) ||
 			TOY_VALUE_AS_INTEGER(result) != 42
 		) {
 			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: copy an integer value failed\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
+			Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 			return -1;
 		}
+
+		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 	}

 	//test string copy
@@ -119,7 +125,7 @@ int test_value_copying(void) {
 		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);

 		Toy_Value original = TOY_VALUE_FROM_STRING(Toy_createStringLength(&bucket, "Hello world!", 12));
-		Toy_Value result = Toy_copyValue(original);
+		Toy_Value result = Toy_copyValue(&bucket, original);

 		if (TOY_VALUE_IS_STRING(result) == false ||
 			TOY_VALUE_AS_STRING(result)->info.type != TOY_STRING_LEAF ||
@@ -143,6 +149,8 @@ int test_value_copying(void) {
 	//test copy arrays
 	{
 		//setup
+		Toy_Bucket* bucket = Toy_allocateBucket(TOY_BUCKET_IDEAL);
+
 		Toy_Array* array = Toy_resizeArray(NULL, TOY_ARRAY_INITIAL_CAPACITY);
 		TOY_ARRAY_PUSHBACK(array, TOY_VALUE_FROM_INTEGER(42));
 		TOY_ARRAY_PUSHBACK(array, TOY_VALUE_FROM_INTEGER(69));
@@ -150,7 +158,7 @@ int test_value_copying(void) {

 		Toy_Value original = TOY_VALUE_FROM_ARRAY(array);

-		Toy_Value result = Toy_copyValue(original);
+		Toy_Value result = Toy_copyValue(&bucket, original);

 		if (TOY_VALUE_AS_ARRAY(result) == false ||
 			TOY_VALUE_AS_ARRAY(result)->capacity != 8 ||
@@ -163,12 +171,14 @@ int test_value_copying(void) {
 			fprintf(stderr, TOY_CC_ERROR "ERROR: copy an array value failed\n" TOY_CC_RESET);
 			Toy_freeValue(original);
 			Toy_freeValue(result);
+			Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 			return -1;
 		}

 		//cleanup
 		Toy_freeValue(original);
 		Toy_freeValue(result);
+		Toy_freeBucket(&bucket);
 	}

 	//arrays can't be compared